Graphical Abstract Figure
Abstract
The regular graphite can only provide the negligible capacity for Na-ion intercalation, due to the narrow layer spacing and unstable thermodynamic factor. In this study, an energy storage device is created using the prelithiated graphite and Na3V2(PO4)3&NaClO4-based electrolyte, achieving an initial energy density of 317 W h kg−1 and a long lifespan of 1000 cycles with a 71.3% energy retention under the current rate of 1 C. Additionally, the prelithiated graphite anode could be recognized as an artificial Li metal with a strong skeleton, which reduces the volume changes and provides the growth substrate for Na-ion storage by the plating/stripping behavior. When the Li is depleted by participating in the reconstruction of SEI and the occurrence of complex side reactions, the battery system would die as a result. Therefore, the amounts of excess Li have a significant impact on the electrochemical performance of this device. That is to say that regulating the area density of anode enables a long-life Na3V2(PO4)3||graphite energy storage device.
References
1.
Han
, X.
, Gong
, Y.
, Fu
, K.
, He
, X.
, Hitz
, G. T.
, Dai
, J.
, Pearse
, A.
, et al, 2017
, “Negating Interfacial Impedance in Garnet-Based Solid-State Li Metal Batteries
,” Nat. Mater.
, 16
(5
), pp. 572
–579
. 2.
Ma
, L. B.
, Cui
, J.
, Yao
, S. S.
, Liu
, X. M.
, Luo
, Y. S.
, Shen
, X. P.
, and Kim
, J. K.
, 2020
, “Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal and Sodium Metal Batteries
,” Energy Storage Mater.
, 27
, pp. 522
–554
. 3.
Chen
, C.
, Zhang
, Y.
, Li
, Y.
, Kuang
, Y.
, Song
, J.
, Luo
, W.
, Wang
, Y.
, et al, 2017
, “Highly Conductive, Lightweight, Low-Tortuosity Carbon Frameworks as Ultrathick 3D Current Collectors
,” Adv. Energy Mater.
, 7
(17
), p. 1700595
. 4.
Wang
, L.
, Shang
, J.
, Huang
, Q. Y.
, Hu
, H.
, Zhang
, Y. Q.
, Xie
, C.
, Luo
, Y. F.
, Gao
, Y.
, Wang
, H. X.
, and Zheng
, Z. J.
, 2021
, “Smoothing the Sodium-Metal Anode With a Self-Regulating Alloy Interface for High-Energy and Sustainable Sodium-Metal Batteries
,” Adv. Mater.
, 33
(41
), p. 2102802
. 5.
Lee
, B.
, Paek
, E.
, Mitlin
, D.
, and Lee
, S. W.
, 2019
, “Sodium Metal Anodes: Emerging Solutions to Dendrite Growth
,” Chem. Rev.
, 119
(8
), pp. 5416
–5460
. 6.
Ye
, L.
, Liao
, M.
, Zhao
, T. C.
, Sun
, H.
, Zhao
, Y.
, Sun
, X. M.
, Wang
, B. J.
, and Peng
, H. S.
, 2019
, “A Sodiophilic Interphase-Mediated, Dendrite-Free Anode With Ultrahigh Specific Capacity for Sodium-Metal Batteries
,” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
, 58
(47
), pp. 17054
–17060
. 7.
Zhang
, Y.
, Zuo
, T. T.
, Popovic
, J.
, Lim
, K.
, Yin
, Y. X.
, Maier
, J.
, and Guo
, Y. G.
, 2020
, “Towards Better Li Metal Anodes: Challenges and Strategies
,” Mater. Today
, 33
, pp. 56
–74
. 8.
Jiao
, S. H.
, Zheng
, J. M.
, Li
, Q. Y.
, Li
, X.
, Engelhard
, M. H.
, Cao
, R. G.
, Zhang
, J. G.
, and Xu
, W.
, 2018
, “Behavior of Lithium Metal Anodes Under Various Capacity Utilization and High Current Density in Lithium Metal Batteries
,” Joule
, 2
(1
), pp. 110
–124
. 9.
Xu
, W.
, Wang
, J.
, Ding
, F.
, Chen
, X.
, Nasybutin
, E.
, Zhang
, Y.
, and Zhang
, J.-G.
, 2014
, “Lithium Metal Anodes for Rechargeable Batteries
,” Energy Environ. Sci.
, 7
(2
), pp. 513
–537
. 10.
Bieker
, G.
, Winter
, M.
, and Bieker
, P.
, 2015
, “Electrochemical In Situ Investigations of SEI and Dendrite Formation on the Lithium Metal Anode
,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys.
, 17
(14
), pp. 8670
–8679
. 11.
Lin
, D. C.
, Liu
, Y. Y.
, and Cui
, Y.
, 2017
, “Reviving the Lithium Metal Anode for High-Energy Batteries
,” Nat. Nanotechnol.
, 12
(3
), pp. 194
–206
. 12.
Niu
, C.
, Liu
, D.
, Lochala
, J. A.
, Anderson
, C. S.
, Cao
, X.
, Gross
, M. E.
, Xu
, W.
, et al, 2021
, “Balancing Interfacial Reactions to Achieve Long Cycle Life in High-Energy Lithium Metal Batteries
,” Nat. Energy
, 6
(7
), pp. 723
–732
. 13.
Wu
, B. B.
, Lochala
, J.
, Taverne
, T.
, and Xiao
, J.
, 2017
, “The Interplay Between Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI) and Dendritic Lithium Growth
,” Nano Energy
, 40
, pp. 34
–41
. 14.
Zhang
, H.
, Eshetu
, G. G.
, Judez
, X.
, Li
, C.
, Rodriguez-Martinez
, L. M.
, and Armand
, M.
, 2018
, “Electrolyte Additives for Lithium Metal Anodes and Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries: Progress and Perspectives
,” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
, 57
(46
), pp. 15002
–15027
. 15.
Zhang
, K.
, Lee
, G. H.
, Park
, M.
, Li
, W. J.
, and Kang
, Y. M.
, 2016
, “Recent Developments of the Lithium Metal Anode for Rechargeable Non-Aqueous Batteries
,” Adv. Energy Mater.
, 6
(20
), p. 1600811
. 16.
Ri
, G. C.
, Yu
, C. J.
, Kim
, J. S.
, Hong
, S. N.
, Jong
, U. G.
, and Ri
, M. H.
, 2016
, “First-Principles Study of Ternary Graphite Compounds Cointercalated With Alkali Atoms (Li, Na, and K) and Alkylamines Towards Alkali Ion Battery Applications
,” J. Power Sources
, 324
, pp. 758
–765
. 17.
Yacoby
, A.
, 2011
, “Graphene: Tri and Tri Again
,” Nat. Phys.
, 7
(12
), pp. 925
–926
. 18.
Li
, Y.
, Lu
, Y. X.
, Adelhelm
, P.
, Titirici
, M. M.
, and Hu
, Y. S.
, 2019
, “Intercalation Chemistry of Graphite: Alkali Metal Ions and Beyond
,” Chem. Soc. Rev.
, 48
(17
), pp. 4655
–4687
. 19.
Moriwake
, H.
, Kuwabara
, A.
, Fisher
, C. A. J.
, and Ikuhara
, Y.
, 2017
, “Why Is Sodium-Intercalated Graphite Unstable?
,” RSC Adv.
, 7
(58
), pp. 36550
–36554
. 20.
Xu
, Z.-L.
, Yoon
, G.
, Park
, K.-Y.
, Park
, H.
, Tamwattana
, O.
, Kim
, S. J.
, Seong
, W. M.
, and Kang
, K.
, 2019
, “Tailoring Sodium Intercalation in Graphite for High Energy and Power Sodium Ion Batteries
,” Nat. Commun.
, 10
(1
), pp. 2598
–2598
. 21.
Wen
, Y.
, He
, K.
, Zhu
, Y. J.
, Han
, F. D.
, Xu
, Y. H.
, Matsuda
, I.
, Ishii
, Y.
, Cumings
, J.
, and Wang
, C. S.
, 2014
, “Expanded Graphite as Superior Anode for Sodium-Ion Batteries
,” Nat. Commun.
, 5
(1
), p. 4033
. 22.
Kim
, S.
, Kim
, Y. J.
, and Ryu
, W. H.
, 2021
, “Controllable Insertion Mechanism of Expanded Graphite Anodes Employing Conversion Reaction Pillars for Sodium-Ion Batteries
,” ACS Appl. Mater. Inter.
, 13
(20
), pp. 24070
–24080
. 23.
Zhang
, X. X.
, Qu
, H. N.
, Ji
, W. X.
, Zheng
, D.
, Ding
, T. Y.
, Abegglen
, C. L.
, Qiu
, D. T.
, and Qu
, D. Y.
, 2020
, “Fast and Controllable Prelithiation of Hard Carbon Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries
,” ACS Appl. Mater. Inter.
, 12
(10
), pp. 11589
–11599
. 10.1149/MA2020-024712mtgabs. 24.
Pi
, Y.
, Gan
, Z.
, Yan
, M.
, Pei
, C.
, Yu
, H.
, Ge
, Y.
, An
, Q.
, and Mai
, L.
, 2021
, “Insight Into Pre-Sodiation in Na3V2(PO4)2F3/C@ Hard Carbon Full Cells for Promoting the Development of Sodium-Ion Battery
,” Chem. Eng. J.
, 413
, p. 127565
. 25.
Conder
, J.
, and Villevieille
, C.
, 2019
, “How Reliable Is the Na Metal as a Counter Electrode in Na-Ion Half Cells?
,” Chem. Commun.
, 55
(9
), pp. 1275
–1278
. 26.
Iermakova
, D. I.
, Dugas
, R.
, Palacin
, M. R.
, and Ponrouch
, A.
, 2015
, “On the Comparative Stability of Li and Na Metal Anode Interfaces in Conventional Alkyl Carbonate Electrolytes
,” J. Electrochem. Soc.
, 162
(13
), pp. A7060
–A7066
. 27.
Pi
, Y. Q.
, Gan
, Z. W.
, Li
, Z.
, Ruan
, Y. S.
, Pei
, C. Y.
, Yu
, H.
, Han
, K.
, Ge
, Y. W.
, An
, Q. Y.
, and Mai
, L. Q.
, 2020
, “Methanol-Derived High-Performance Na3V2(PO4)3/C: From Kilogram-Scale Synthesis to Pouch Cell Safety Detection
,” Nanoscale
, 12
(41
), pp. 21165
–21171
. 28.
An
, Q. Y.
, Xiong
, F. Y.
, Wei
, Q. L.
, Sheng
, J. Z.
, He
, L.
, Ma
, D. L.
, Yao
, Y.
, and Mai
, L. Q.
, 2015
, “Nanoflake-Assembled Hierarchical Na3V2(PO4)3/C Microflowers: Superior Li Storage Performance and Insertion/Extraction Mechanism
,” Adv. Energy Mater.
, 5
(10
), p. 1401963
. 29.
Liang
, L. W.
, Li
, X. Y.
, Zhao
, F.
, Zhang
, J. Y.
, Liu
, Y.
, Hou
, L. R.
, and Yuan
, C. Z.
, 2021
, “Construction and Operating Mechanism of High-Rate Mo-Doped Na3V2(PO4)3@C Nanowires Toward Practicable Wide-Temperature-Tolerance Na-Ion and Hybrid Li/Na-Ion Batteries
,” Adv. Energy Mater.
, 11
(21
), p. 2170079
. 30.
Sun
, B.
, Li
, P.
, Zhang
, J. Q.
, Wang
, D.
, Munroe
, P.
, Wang
, C. Y.
, Notten
, P. H. L.
, and Wang
, G. X.
, 2018
, “Dendrite-Free Sodium-Metal Anodes for High-Energy Sodium-Metal Batteries
,” Adv. Mater.
, 30
(29
), p. 1801334
. 31.
Ye
, L.
, Liao
, M.
, Sun
, H.
, Yang
, Y.
, Tang
, C.
, Zhao
, Y.
, Wang
, L.
, et al, 2019
, “Stabilizing Lithium Into Cross-Stacked Nanotube Sheets With an Ultra-High Specific Capacity for Lithium Oxygen Batteries
,” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
, 58
(8
), pp. 2437
–2442
. 32.
Chi
, S. S.
, Qi
, X. G.
, Hu
, Y. S.
, and Fan
, L. Z.
, 2018
, “3D Flexible Carbon Felt Host for Highly Stable Sodium Metal Anodes
,” Adv. Energy Mater.
, 8
(15
), p. 1702764
. 33.
Yui
, Y.
, Hayashi
, M.
, and Nakamura
, J.
, 2016
, “In Situ Microscopic Observation of Sodium Deposition/Dissolution on Sodium Electrode
,” Sci. Rep.
, 6
(1
), p. 22406
. 34.
Xiao
, J.
, Li
, Q.
, Bi
, Y.
, Cai
, M.
, Dunn
, B.
, Glossmann
, T.
, Liu
, J.
, et al, 2020
, “Understanding and Applying Coulombic Efficiency in Lithium Metal Batteries
,” Nat. Energy
, 5
(8
), pp. 561
–568
. 35.
Adams
, B. D.
, Zheng
, J. M.
, Ren
, X. D.
, Xu
, W.
, and Zhang
, J. G.
, 2018
, “Accurate Determination of Coulombic Efficiency for Lithium Metal Anodes and Lithium Metal Batteries
,” Adv. Energy Mater.
, 8
(7
), p. 1702097
. 
