This paper describes a study to understand the use of analogies by design engineers with different levels of experience in an adaptive design domain. Protocol analyses of 12 design engineers have been analyzed to understand the functions and reasoning of the analogies. The protocols are real-world data from the aerospace industry. The findings indicate a significant difference in both the use of analogies by novices and experienced designers and the reasoning from the analogies. Novices were found to predominantly transfer information related to the geometric properties without explicit reference to relevant design issues or to the appropriateness of applying the analogy, whereas experienced designers tended to use analogies for problem solving and problem identification. Experienced designers were found to use the analogy to reason about the function of a component and the predicted behavior of the component, whereas the novices seem to lack such reasoning processes.

1.
Dahl
,
D. W.
, and
Moreau
,
P.
, 2002, “
The Influence and Value of Analogical Thinking During New Product Ideation
,”
J. Mark. Res.
0022-2437,
39
, pp.
47
60
.
2.
Gentner
,
D.
, 1998, “
Analogy
,”
A Companion to Cognitive Science
,
W.
Bechtel
and
G.
Graham
, eds.,
Blackwell
,
Oxford
, pp.
107
113
.
3.
Gentner
,
D.
, and
Markman
,
A. B.
, 1997, “
Structure Mapping in Analogy and Similarity
,”
Am. Psychol.
0003-066X,
52
, pp.
45
56
.
4.
Holyoak
,
K. J.
,
Gentner
,
D.
, and
Kokinov
,
B. N.
, 2001, “
The Place of Analogy in Cognition
,”
The Analogical Mind: Perspectives From Cognitive Science
,
D.
Gentner
,
K. J.
Holyoak
, and
B. N.
Kokinov
, eds.,
MIT Press
,
Cambridge, MA
, pp.
1
20
.
5.
Gentner
,
D.
, and
Stevens
,
A.
, 1983,
Mental Models
,
Lawrence Erlbaum
,
Hillsdale, NJ
.
6.
Holyoak
,
K. J.
, and
Thagard
,
P.
, 1995,
Mental Leaps: Analogy in Creative Thought
,
MIT Press
,
Cambridge, MA
.
7.
Roozenburg
,
N. F. M.
, and
Eekels
,
J.
, 1995,
Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods, Product Development: Planning, Designing, Engineering
,
Wiley
,
Chichester
.
8.
Casakin
,
H.
, and
Goldschmidt
,
G.
, 1999, “
Expertise and the Use of Visual Analogy: Implications for Design Education
,”
Des. Stud.
0142-694X,
20
, pp.
153
175
.
9.
Goldschmidt
,
G.
, 2001, “
Visual Analogy: A Strategy for Design Reasoning and Learning
,”
Design Knowing and Learning: Cognition in Design Education
,
C. M.
Eastman
,
W. M.
McCracken
, and
W. C.
Newsletter
, eds.,
Elsevier
,
Amsterdam
, pp.
199
220
.
10.
Cagan
,
J.
, 2008, “
Editorial: Cognitive-Based Engineering Design: An Emerging Direction of Engineering Research
,”
ASME J. Mech. Des.
0161-8458,
130
(
6
), p.
060201
.
11.
McAdams
,
D. A.
, and
Wood
,
K. L.
, 2002, “
A Quantitative Similarity Metric for Design-by-Analogy
,”
ASME J. Mech. Des.
0161-8458,
124
(
2
), pp.
173
183
.
12.
Nagel
,
R. L.
,
Midha
,
P. A.
,
Tinsley
,
A.
,
Stone
,
R. B.
,
McAdams
,
D. A.
, and
Shu
,
L. H.
, 2008, “
Exploring the Use of Functional Models in Biomimetic Conceptual Design
,”
ASME J. Mech. Des.
0161-8458,
130
(
12
), p.
121102
.
13.
Ghiselin
,
B.
, 1954,
The Creative Process: A Symposium
,
University of California Press
,
Berkeley, CA
.
14.
Shepard
,
R. N.
, 1978, “
Externalization of Mental Images and the Act of Creation
,”
Visual Learning, Thinking, and Communication
,
B. S.
Randawa
and
W. E.
Cofman
, eds.,
Academic
,
New York
, pp.
133
189
.
15.
Hey
,
J.
,
Linsey
,
J.
,
Agogino
,
A. M.
, and
Wood
,
K. L.
, 2008, “
Analogies and Metaphors in Creative Design
,”
Int. J. Eng. Educ.
0949-149X,
24
(
2
), pp.
283
294
.
16.
Dunbar
,
K.
, 2001, “
The Analogical Paradox: Why Analogy Is So Easy in Naturalistic Settings Yet So Difficult in the Psychological Laboratory
,”
The Analogical Mind: Perspectives From Cognitive Science
,
D.
Gentner
,
K. J.
Holyoak
, and
B. N.
Kokinov
, eds.,
The MIT Press
,
Cambridge, MA
, pp.
313
334
.
17.
Dunbar
,
K.
, 1997, “
How Scientists Think: On-Line Creativity and Conceptual Change in Science
,”
Creative Thought: An Investigation of Conceptual Structures and Processes
,
T. B.
Ward
,
S. M.
Smith
, and
J.
Vaid
, eds.,
American Psychological Association
,
Washington, DC
, pp.
461
493
.
18.
Ward
,
T. B.
, 1998, “
Analogical Distance and Purpose in Creative Thought: Mental Leaps Versus Mental Hops
,”
Advances in Analogy Research: Integration of Theory and Data From the Cognitive, Computational, and Neural Sciences
,
K. J.
Holyoak
,
D.
Gentner
, and
B. N.
Kokinov
, eds.,
New Bulgarian University
,
Sofia
.
19.
Christensen
,
B. T.
, and
Schunn
,
C. D.
, 2007, “
The Relationship Between Analogical Distance to Analogical Function and Pre-Inventive Structure: The Case of Engineering Design
,”
Mem. Cognit.
0090-502X,
35
, pp.
29
38
.
20.
Ball
,
L. J.
, and
Christensen
,
B. T.
, 2007, “
Analogical Reasoning and Mental Simulation in Design: Two Strategies Linked to Uncertainty Resolution
,”
DTRS7—Design Meeting Protocols
, pp.
83
89
.
21.
Newell
,
A.
, and
Simon
,
H. A.
, 1972,
Human Problem Solving
,
Prentice-Hall
,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ
.
22.
Chase
,
W. G.
, and
Simon
,
H. A.
, 1973, “
The Mind’s Eye in Chess
,”
Visual Information Processing
,
W. G.
Chase
, ed.,
Academic
,
New York
, pp.
215
281
.
23.
Chi
,
M. T. H.
,
Feltovich
,
P. J.
, and
Glaser
,
R.
, 1981, “
Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices
,”
Cogn. Sci.
0364-0213,
5
, pp.
121
152
.
24.
Gick
,
M. L.
, and
Holyoak
,
K. J.
, 1980, “
Analogical Problem Solving
,”
Cognit. Psychol.
,
12
, pp.
306
355
. 0010-0285
25.
Needham
,
D. R.
, and
Begg
,
I. M.
, 1991, “
Problem-Oriented Training Promotes Spontaneous Analogical Transfer: Memory-Oriented Training Promotes Memory for Training
,”
Mem. Cognit.
0090-502X,
19
, pp.
543
557
.
26.
Holyoak
,
K. J.
, and
Koh
,
K.
, 1987, “
Surface and Structural Similarity in Analogical Transfer
,”
Mem. Cognit.
0090-502X,
15
, pp.
332
340
.
27.
Novick
,
L. R.
, 1988, “
Analogical Transfer, Problem Similarity, and Expertise
,”
J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn.
0278-7393,
14
, pp.
510
520
.
28.
Blessing
,
S. B.
, and
Ross
,
B. H.
, 1996, “
Content Effects in Problem Categorization and Problem Solving
,”
J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn.
0278-7393,
22
, pp.
792
810
.
29.
Casakin
,
H.
, 2004, “
Visual Analogy as a Cognitive Strategy in the Design Process: Expert Versus Novice Performance
,”
Journal of Design Research
1569-1551,
4
.
30.
Bonnardel
,
N.
, and
Marmèche
,
E.
, 2004, “
Evocation Processes by Novice and Expert Designers: Towards Stimulating Analogical Thinking
,”
Creat. Innov. Manag.
,
13
, pp.
176
186
. 0963-1690
31.
Ball
,
L. J.
,
Ormerod
,
T. C.
, and
Morley
,
N. J.
, 2004, “
Spontaneous Analogizing in Engineering Design: A Comparative Analysis of Experts and Novices
,”
Des. Stud.
0142-694X,
25
, pp.
495
508
.
32.
Groot
,
A. D.
, 1978,
Thought and Choice and Chess
,
Mouton
,
The Hague, The Netherlands
.
33.
Lawson
,
B.
, 2004, “
Schemata, Gambits and Precedent: Some Factors in Design Expertise
,”
Des. Stud.
0142-694X,
25
(
5
), pp.
443
457
.
34.
Ahmed
,
S.
,
Wallace
,
K. M.
, and
Blessing
,
L. S.
, 2003, “
Understanding the Differences Between How Novice and Experienced Designers Approach Design Tasks
,”
Res. Eng. Des.
0934-9839,
14
(
1
), pp.
1
11
.
35.
Kavakli
,
M.
, and
Gero
,
J. S.
, 2001, “
Strategic Knowledge Differences Between an Expert and a Novice
,”
Proceedings of the Strategic Knowledge and Concept Formation II
,
J. S.
Gero
and
K.
Hori
, eds.,
Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognitions
,
Sydney, Australia
, pp.
55
68
.
36.
Cross
,
N.
, 2003, “
The Expertise of Exceptional Designers
,”
Proceedings of the Expertise in Design Thinking Research Symposium 6
,
N.
Cross
and
E.
Edmonds
, eds.,
Creativity and Cognition Studios
,
Sydney, Australia
, pp.
23
35
.
37.
Forbus
,
K. D.
, and
Gentner
,
D.
, 1997, “
Qualitative Mental Models: Simulations or Memories?
,”
Proceedings of the 11th International Workshop on Qualitative Reasoning
.
38.
Kuipers
,
B.
, 1994,
Qualitative Reasoning
,
The MIT Press
,
Cambridge, MA
.
39.
Forbus
,
K. D.
, 1984, “
Qualitative Process Theory
,”
Artif. Intell.
0004-3702,
24
, pp.
85
168
.
40.
Gentner
,
D.
, 2002, “
Psychology of Mental Models
,”
International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
,
N. J.
Smelser
and
P. B.
Bates
, eds.,
Elsevier
,
Amsterdam
, pp.
9683
9687
.
41.
Trafton
,
J. G.
,
Kirschenbaum
,
S. S.
,
Tsui
,
T. L.
,
Miyamoto
,
R. T.
,
Ballas
,
J. A.
, and
Raymond
,
P. D.
, 2000, “
Turning Pictures Into Numbers: Extracting and Generating Information From Complex Visualizations
,”
Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud.
1071-5819,
53
, pp.
827
850
.
42.
Christensen
,
B. T.
, and
Schunn
,
C. D.
, 2009, “
The Role and Impact of Mental Simulation in Design
,”
Appl. Cognit. Psychol.
0888-4080,
23
, pp.
327
344
.
43.
de Jong
,
A. J. M.
, 1986,
Kennis En Het Oplossen Van Vakinhoudelijke Problemen (Knowledge and Solving Domain Problems)
,
Technical University of Eindhoven
,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
.
44.
Waldron
,
M. B.
, and
Waldron
,
K. J.
, 1996, “
The Influence of the Designer’s Expertise on the Design Process
,”
Mechanical Design: Theory and Methodology
,
M. B.
Waldron
and
K. J.
Waldron
, eds.,
Springer
,
New York
, pp.
5
20
.
45.
Ericsson
,
K. A.
, and
Charness
,
N.
, 1997, “
Cognitive and Development Factors in Expert Performance
,”
Expertise in Context
,
AAAI
,
Menlo Park, CA
.
46.
Zeitz
,
C. M.
, 1997, “
Some Concrete Advantages of Abstraction: How Experts’ Representations Facilitate Reasoning
,”
Expertise in Context
,
P. J.
Feltovich
,
K. M.
Ford
, and
R. R.
Hoffman
, eds.,
AAAI
,
Menlo Park, CA
, pp.
43
46
.
47.
Dunbar
,
K.
, 1995, “
How Scientists Really Reason: Scientific Reasoning in Real-World Laboratories
,”
The Nature of Insight
,
R. J.
Sternberg
and
J. E.
Davidson
, eds.,
The MIT Press
,
Cambridge, MA
, pp.
365
395
.
48.
Dunbar
,
K.
, and
Blanchette
,
I.
, 2001, “
The Invivo/invitro Approach to Cognition: The Case of Analogy
,”
Trends Cogn. Sci.
1364-6613,
5
, pp.
334
339
.
49.
Vosniadou
,
S.
, and
Ortony
,
A.
, 1989, “
Similarity and Analogical Reasoning: A Synthesis
,”
Similarity and Analogical Reasoning
,
S.
Vosniadou
and
A.
Ortony
, eds.,
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, MA
, pp.
1
7
.
50.
Gentner
,
D.
,
Rattermann
,
M. J.
, and
Forbus
,
K. D.
, 1993, “
The Roles of Similarity in Transfer: Separating Retrievability From Inferential Soundness
,”
Cognit. Psychol.
,
25
, pp.
524
575
. 0010-0285
51.
Johnson-Laird
,
P. N.
, 1989, “
Analogy and the Exercise of Creativity
,”
Similarity and Analogical Reasoning
,
S.
Vosniadou
and
A.
Ortony
, eds.,
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, MA
, pp.
313
331
.
52.
Leclerq
,
P.
, and
Heylighen
,
A.
, 2002, “
5.8 Analogies Per Hour
,”
Proceedings of the AID’02 Artificial Intelligence in Design
,
Kluwer Academic
,
Dordrecht
, pp.
285
303
.
53.
Tseng
,
I.
,
Moss
,
J.
,
Cagan
,
J.
, and
Kotovsky
,
K.
, 2008, “
The Role of Timing and Analogical Similarity in the Stimulation of Idea Generation in Design
,”
Des. Stud.
0142-694X,
29
, pp.
203
221
.
54.
Pahl
,
G.
, and
Beitz
,
W.
, 1984,
Engineering Design
,
Design Council
,
London
.
55.
Sonnentag
,
S.
, 1998, “
Expertise in Professional Software Design: A Process Study
,”
J. Appl. Psychol.
0021-9010,
83
(
5
), pp.
703
715
.
56.
Simon
,
H. A.
, and
Chase
,
W. G.
, 1973, “
Skill in Chess
,”
Am. Sci.
0003-0996,
61
, pp.
394
403
.
57.
Hayes
,
J. R.
, 1981,
The Complete Problem Solver
,
Franklin Institute Press
,
Philadelphia, PA
.
58.
Bloom
,
B. S.
, 1985,
Developing Talent in Young People
,
Ballantine Books
,
New York
.
59.
Aurisicchio
,
M.
,
Bracewell
,
R.
, and
Wallace
,
K.
, 2006,
9th International Design Conference (DESIGN 2006), Characterising the Information Requests of Engineering Designers
, Vol.
2
,
D.
Marjanovic
, ed.,
The Design Society
,
Dubrovnik, Croatia
, pp.
1057
1064
.
60.
Gero
,
J. S.
, 1990, “
Design Prototypes: A Knowledge Representation Scheme for Design
,”
AI Mag.
0738-4602,
11
, pp.
26
36
.
61.
Eckert
,
C.
,
Stacey
,
M.
, and
Earl
,
C.
, 2005, “
Reference to Past Designs
,”
Studying Designers ’05
,
Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition
,
Aix-en-Provence, France
.
62.
Jansson
,
D. G.
, and
Smith
,
S. M.
, 1991, “
Design Fixation
,”
Des. Stud.
0142-694X,
12
(
1
), pp.
3
11
.
63.
Ward
,
T. B.
, 1994, “
Structured Imagination: The Role of Category Structure in Exemplar Generation
,”
Cognit. Psychol.
,
27
, pp.
1
40
. 0010-0285
64.
Marsh
,
R. L.
,
Ward
,
T. B.
, and
Landau
,
J. D.
, 1999, “
The Inadvertent Use of Prior Knowledge in a Generative Cognitive Task
,”
Mem. Cognit.
0090-502X,
27
, pp.
94
105
.
65.
Jaarsveld
,
S.
, and
van Leeuwen
,
C.
, 2005, “
Sketches From a Design Process: Creative Cognition Inferred From Intermediate Products
,”
Cogn. Sci.
0364-0213,
29
, pp.
79
101
.
66.
Christiaans
,
H.
, and
Andel
,
J. v.
, 1993, “
The Effects of Examples on the Use of Knowledge in a Student Design Activity: The Case of the “Flying Dutchman”
,”
Des. Stud.
0142-694X,
14
, pp.
58
74
.
67.
Linsey
,
J. S.
,
Laux
,
J. P.
,
Clauss
,
E.
,
Wood
,
K. L.
, and
Markman
,
A. B.
, 2007, “
Increasing Innovation: A Trilogy of Experiments Towards a Design-by-Analogy Method
,” ASME Paper No. DETC2007-34948.
68.
Mayer
,
R. E.
, 1999, “
Fifty Years of Creativity Research
,”
Handbook of Creativity
,
R. J.
Sternberg
, ed.,
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge, UK
, pp.
449
460
.
69.
Christensen
,
B. T.
, and
Schunn
,
C. D.
, 2009, “
Putting Blinkers on a Blind Man. Providing Cognitive Support for Creative Processes With Environmental Cues
,”
Tools for Innovation
,
A.
Markman
and
K. L.
Woods
, eds.,
Oxford University Press
,
Oxford
.
70.
Domeshek
,
E. A.
, and
Kolodner
,
J. L.
, 1997, “
The Designer’s Muse: Experience to Aid Conceptual Design of Complex Artifacts
,”
Issues and Applications of Case Based Reasoning in Design
,
M. L.
Maher
and
P.
Pu
, eds.,
Lawrence Erlbaum
,
London, UK
, pp.
11
38
.
You do not currently have access to this content.