Fig. 1 Illustration of the North Sea Mine Barrage from World War I (WWI), based on Ducan [ 20 ]. The black dot in the figure indicates the location of the Johan Sverdrup Oil and Gas field. More

Fig. 2 ( a ) Close multibeam digital terrain model (DTM) image of charge canister and corroded outer shell and ( b ) Video of mine charge canister. (The pictures are both provided by Deep Ocean during a field survey in 2018 in the North Sea.) More

Fig. 3 Cross section view of the FE model More

Fig. 4 Isotropic view of the 3D FE Abaqus model with mesh turned on. The blue part is the water domain and the greyed part is the soil domain. (Color version online.) More

Fig. 5 Dynamic stress under different strain rates ε ˙ and plastic strain ɛ p More

Fig. 6 Equivalent plastic strain at failure under different strain rates ε ˙ and triaxiality η T More

Fig. 7 Pressure extraction locations within the Eulerian domain. The vertical interval is 0.6 m. More

Fig. 8 Pipeline laid on seabed, penetration distance 0.2 m. Left: Isotropic view. Right: Front view. More

Fig. 9 Shock wave pressure distribution at the center cross-section, offset = 2.5 m, t = 1.1 ms. Left: case A1. Middle: case A2. Right: case A3. More

Fig. 10 Shock wave pressure development in cases A1, A2, and A3, offset = 2.5 m. Upper: at position 1. Middle: at position 2. Lower: at position 3. More

Fig. 11 Crater dimension after the explosion, offset = 2.5 m More

Fig. 12 Bubble evolution comparison between three models, offset = 2.5 m. Left: seabed included. Middle: no seabed. Right: no seabed and TNT mass doubled. More

Fig. 13 Pipeline damage comparison between three models, offset = 2.5 m. Left: case A1. Middle: case A2. Right: case A3. More

Fig. 14 Axial reaction force (RF) of pipeline during explosion, offset = 2.5 m More

Fig. 15 Shock wave pressure distribution at the center cross-section, offset = 5 m, t = 2.9 ms. Left: case B1. Middle: case B2. Right: case B3. More

Fig. 16 Shock wave pressure development in cases B1, B2, and B3, offset = 5 m. Upper: at position 1. Middle: at position 2. Lower: at position 3. More

Fig. 17 Crater dimension after the explosion in case B1, offset = 5 m More

Fig. 18 Bubble evolution comparison between three models, offset = 5 m. Left: case B1. Middle: case B2. Right: case B3. More

Fig. 19 Pipeline damage comparison between three models, offset = 5 m. Left: case B1. Middle: case B2. Right: case B3. More